c-snowiceandfrozenground-persimmon

__** 4.2- Changes in Snow Cover**__ Albedo- 1. Astronomy. the ratio of the light reflected by a planet or satellite to that received by it. 2. Meteorology. such a ratio for any part of the earth's surface or atmosphere. Anthropogenic- 1. caused or produced by humans Precipitation- 1.the act of precipitating; state of being precipitated. 2. a casting down or falling headlong. 3. a hastening or hurrying in movement, procedure, oraction. 4. sudden haste. 5. unwise or rash rapidity. Subsequent- 1. ocurring or coming later or after (often followed by to ): subsequent events; Subsequent to their arrival in Chicago, they bought a new car. 2. following in order or succession; succeeding: a subsequent section in a treaty. (defifinitions from dictionary.com)
 * Vocabulary- Makenna Hunter**

This section includes observations of snow coverage. Some new studies have been done since the last report: changes in snow depth and snow water equivalent; the factors snow has on temperatture and precipitation; observations and estimates of snow in the Southern Hemisphere. Snow on other things besides land and ocean are not going to be in this section. Albedo is the reflectiveness of snow or other surfaces from space. Fresh snow has a high albedo of 0.8 - 0.9. The level of snow albedo depends on several things, including depth, age of the snow, vegetation height, incoming solar radiation and cloud coverage. Anthropological soot (which is like smoke caused by humans) may decrease the albedo.
 * Summary - Makenna Hunter**
 * Background**

Not only does snow albedo have an impact on the climate but snow may also affect the climate indirectly. Soil summer moisture, which is caused by the amount of snow in the winter, can have an affect on winds, but it is very hard to measure and predict.

This section is basically saying that the decreasing albedo of the snow is going to keep increasing the temperature, because the smoke is going to make the snow less white, so it reflects more heat off into space. I contribute to that smoke by using cars, electricity (adding to the use of coal), and anything I buy, because it all uses coal. I think that I should buy less stuff, and walk more instead of taking the car, and stuff like that. But I don't think I'll do anything about that, because I'm lazy. I think other people are like that too - they don't want to change their ways just because people came out with a fancy report saying that what they are doing is affecting the environment.
 * Personal Reflection- Makenna Hunter**

__**4.3 Changes in River and Lake Ice**__**-** **Kyra Schmoker**
The point when ice cover forms and becomes solid and stationary. Usually when the ice begins to flow downstream in rivers, and the amount of open water at measurement locations for lakes becomes extensive. The difference between radiant energy received by the earth and energy radiated back to space.  
 * Vocabulary:**
 * Freeze- up dates-
 * Breakup dates-
 * Radiative forcing-
 * 4.3.1 Background- **


 * Overview: **

 Freeze-up and breakup dates have been recorded for many years and at many locations around the world. These records, however, must be closely studied to truly justify the results. For example, the freeze-up and breakup dates for rivers can change due to conditions further upstream, such as snow melt and heavy rain that could be overlooked. As for lakes, historical observations were generally made on the coast of that body of water, and so the records seemed to not completely represent the lake as a whole, and did not completely match the observations made by satellites. Also, much like sea ice, temperature, radiative forcing, and snow (which acts as an insulator) all effect the changes in the thickness of river and lake ice. Even so, these records have been very useful and extremely important climate information over the years, and are the longest records of cryospheric change that we have today.

Although the scientists say that the records are very useful, the amount that the records could have different meanings is significant, and the results dont seem accurate for the way that the testing has been portrayed. I think that in order for us to have accurate records, we must consider revising our methods. Also, drilling into the ice to take ice thickness tests seems to me like it could be doing more harm to the ice, and provoking earlier breakup dates, especially considering that our records arent completely accurate anyway.
 * Personal Reflection: **


 * 4.3.2 Changes in Freeze-up and Breakup Dates-**


 * Overview:**

 The specific freeze-up and breakup dates for ice regarding a body of water as a whole, and in different areas, are uncertain due to the many different conditions of other places on a lake or a river basin; Especially those that may be very large. There is not enough data that has been published on river and lake ice thickness to allow scientists to assess the different trends of breakup and freeze-up dates. The maximum ice thickness and the break-up dates vary due to the variations in snowfall amount each year.   
 * <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 13px;">//__Figure 4.5__// **

<span style="font-family: 'Calibri','sans-serif'; font-size: 15px;"><span style="color: #117931; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 6px; text-decoration: none;">

<span style="color: #117931; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 7px;"> <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 13px;"> In Figure 4.5, a selected time series from a collection of recent freeze-up and breakup records from numerous northern lakes and rivers are shown by Magnuson et al., 2000, copyright AAAS. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 13px;">Records spanning 150 years or more were limited consideration regarding this graph. According to the graph, 11 of 15 records showed trends for a later freeze-up date and 17 of 25 records showed trends for an earlier breakup date. In Figure 4.5, the d ates have been smoothed over with a moving average of 10 years. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 13px;"> This information, to me, shows that the water around the world is spending much more time liquified, than in the past. The freeze-up date is much later, and the breakup date is much earlier. This to me means that the earth is warming up, and that the climate in many places is also changing, which leads to a change in the environment, and lifestyle of the inhabitants in that ecosystem. Therefore, the food chain will change, and will become disrupted, and unfortunately, animals will starve and die. This also leads to migration, and the movement of animals from one place to another due to lack of food in the initial area. This, too, can disrupt other food chains; even food chains that arent affected by climate change. __**4.4- Changes in Sea Ice**__ Polymyas- 1. areas of open water in otherwise ice covered regions
 * Personal Reflection:**
 * Vocabulary- Makenna Hunter**

Observations made daily of the depth of snow and of new snowfall are made in various methods by other countries, going back to the 1800's in some countries.(Switzerland, USA, the former Soviet Union and Finland). In the 1950's the measuring of snow became common in the mountains of western North America and Europe. "Snow data is affected by changes in station location, observing practices and land cover, and are not uniformly distributed." So basically the stations where they study snow are in random places, so it's not complete coverage. SCA is a satellite that is used to evaluate large-scale snow covered areas, used since 1966. It is the longest satellite derived environmental data set of any kind. Meteorologists trained to use the satelite produce weekly reports and satelite images. This method is more reliable than surface observations.
 * Background- Makenna Hunter**

Sea ice has lots of affects on the climate of Earth. Sea ice is when sea water freezes in polar regions. Sea ice thickness affects the climate and is a measure of climate.
 * Summary- Makenna Hunter**

Since 1970 the extent of polar ice has decreased steadily. The graph below shows the decline.

[] Polar ice caps melting animation. The animation displays the veiw of the polar ice caps melting over a span of about 20 years and how the shape and size has changed for the poles. [] Its a Beautiful Lie (30 secounds to Mars). This music video is filmed in Alaska. The video shows the ice melting gradually and says how the ice is melting due to humans taking too much from the enviroment. What will stick with me is the fact that the sea ice has been decreaing. Also the fact that human byproducts, like stuff that goes in the air, will cause snow to be less reflective. Then the Earth will absorb more energy, and will get hotter, and so more ice will melt. I think climate change will make things warmer, and colder in some places. I think it will affect the food supply. It will also affect where it is warm and cold - it is going to shift. People mostly know that the sea ice and the ice caps are melting. Even toddlers know that the polar bears are losing their home. But people don't believe that "God" will change the Earth and they don't believe that it will affect them. The references for this report show that there is so much data and experimentation going on.
 * Personal Reflection- Makenna Hunter**


 * __4.6 Changes and Stability of Ice Sheets and Ice Shelves__-**

A vast resovoir of very slow moving ice. <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;"> <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif'; font-size: 10pt;"> The ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland are massive and contain the power to raise or lower sea levels. These ice sheets can easily raise the sea level by 64 meters if completely melted. Not Just that, but even a small change in the ice sheet balance has the power to affect future sea levels and freshwater drainage to the oceans. About half of the ice lost from Greenland’s ice sheets is due to surface melting, and then runoff into the sea. This surface melting, however, is not as significant for Antarctica, which contains fast-moving ice streams and outlet glaciers. The dynamics of ice and ice shelves can easily be understood by scientists, but they cant quite comprehend the movement and velocities of outlet glaciers and ice streams which can change rapidly accordi8ng to recent observations. The recent melting of Greenland’s ice sheets are in result to the increase in the melting near the coasts and the fast flowing ice, even more so than the increases in snowfall which are typically off-setting in observations. Antarctica’s mass in decreasing significantly as well, due to the recent ice flow acceleration, and the overall balance of the ice sheets is uncertain.
 * Vocabulary:**
 * Ice Sheet-
 * 4.6.1 Background:**

=__4.7 - Changes in Frozen Ground__=


 * Vocabulary**

Topography- How<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #212121; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 1.5;"> the artificial and natural physical features of an area are arranged.

Permafrost- O<span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #212121; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 1.5;">ccurring mainly in polar regions, a thick layer of soil that remains frozen throughout the year.

Cryosphere- Where the Earth’s surface water is in solid form like glaicers, ice caps, ice, ground snow, and permafrost.

Thermokarst- When permafrost thaws, uneven topography forms and it is known as thermokarst.

Boreholes- A narrow, deep hole in the ground for the purpose of finding usually oil or water.

Land surface energy- An energy which its fluxes change continuously and most instances require either continuous energy ﬂux simulations or values integrated over a long period of time.

Latent heat- The heat required to turn one form of water into another.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px;">Permafrost degradation- Decrease in thickness and area of affect caused naturally of physically.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: arial,helvetica,verdana,sans-serif;"> Active layer- The part of the soil that is above permafrost that freezes anally.

4.7 - Background
Frozen ground is close to the surface soil that is affected by freezing during different times of the year, whether that is seasonal or year round. Frozen ground is the largest component of the cryosphere, which you can see in the picture below. Ground temperature will affect the presence of frozen ground and so will the presence of vegetation, snow cover, physical and thermal properties of the earth, and if moisture is present in the ground. If there is no moisture in the ground, the ground will only get cold but not frozen. If permafrost thaws, then there can be some drastic changes to the topography of the area, this is known as thermokarst. Thermokarst can affect more than just topography though, it can change entire ecosystems. Frozen soil can affect the moisture and the land surface energy and the presence or absence of frozen ground affects <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.5;">local hydrological processes.

<span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.5;">People have been measuring permafrost since the 1950s, the first experiments were conducted in Russia in which they made boreholes up to 100 ft. deep. Although permafrost has warmed in the Northern <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 18px;">Hemisphere, there has been cooling, warming, and continuous temperatures all over the world, it really varies. Air temperature changes cannot account for changes in permafrost, what could is the change of snow. Snow provides insulation to the ground and the loss of that could affect the presence of permafrost. Latent heat could be blamed for the lack of a trend, heat would be put into the ground because solid water is being turned into a gas. Permafrost degradation has been noted moving up in North America because of warming in response to the Little Ice Age. Frozen ground thaws when the surface temperature of the soil penetrates the lower soil and the permafrost has thawed, this can come from insulation or the warming of surface air. When this happens, earth can crumble and change, or if it is on a slope it could cause a land slide. Places where thermokarst happens most often is on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean where water is present year round and can affect the ground temperature a lot. Frozen ground can occur everywhere, even below the ocean.



Works Cited:
Topography definition- http://www.thefreedictionary.com/topography

Cryosphere definition- http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/cryosphere

Permafrost picture- http://www.sciencepoles.org/assets/uploads/articles_images/permafrost_crosssection_or.jpg

Land surface energy definition- http://wolfweb.unr.edu/homepage/tylers/pdfpapers/AWR/kampf_tyler2006.pdf

Latent heat definition- http://www.thefreedictionary.com/latent+heat

=**__4.8 - Synthesis__**=