Ch.+3-eBlock

Benedict, Leshea, Dominique, and Jessieジェシー·ダニエル

Executive Summary
//Author Benny//

3.1 Introduction
Throughout time there have been phases of climates in our Earths history; the rain era where it rained for years and the water sources and oceans were created, there was the volcanic era where the temperature of our planet increased and its form was changed due to the eruptions and then the ice age era where our planets temperature dropped, snow and ice formed and then the planet found a temperature balance. But since the inventions of artificial chemicals, toxins and gasses and the release of these unnatural inhabitants in our air our layers of atmospheres have began to thing. Our atmosphere has layers which each have unique jobs creating and keeping the "Greenhouse Effect" of our planet. The outer layers of our atmosphere reflect heat, unwanted radiation and other unwanted sources. The inner layers of our atmosphere keep in heat and the natural gasses and chemicals that create clouds, the Greenhouse Effect, and are essential to life on Earth. Clouds which are created in the inner layers of atmosphere reflect the unwanted radiation and heat which come through the outermost layers of our atmosphere. The artificial chemicals and gasses that have been released into our atmosphere have thinned and have created holes in our atmosphere letting in unwanted radiation and heat which is kept in by the inner layers. This means that with the extra heat the balance of our surface climate has altered creating extreme changes. The extremes range from droughts to wet spells which have a great impact on the environment and society, changes in storm patterns and extremes in climates. This chapter goes over the uncertainty in climate and temperature trends and the new climate and temperature phase our Earth is going through due to artificial gasses and chemicals that have been released into our atmosphere. //Author Jessie//

3.2 Changes in Surface Climate: Temperature
__**Vocabulary:**__ = § __ Surface Temperature __ - the measurement of heat or cold of an exterior body. = = § __ Temperature __ - the measure of warmth or coldness of an object or substance. =

§ __ Anomalies __ - outliers or a piece of data that is out of the normal trend.
== § __ Troposphere __ - the lower region of the atmosphere which scales from 6 to 12 miles above the earth where there is a steady drop in temperature with the increase of altitude also where clouds and weather conditions form. ==

§ __ Stratosphere __ - the upper region of the atmosphere that’s about 30 miles from the earth, the atmosphere outside the troposphere and the highest point of the scale.


__3.2.1 Background__ Scientist have been working on databases to figure out patterns and data on how the temperature of the surface climate over time. Scientists from The Climate Research Unit have been recording data from different hemispheres so that with their data they can see the big changes in temperature in the surface climate. The Climate Research Unit gathers this kind of data by recording the temperature of the surface climate monthly. The World Meteorology Organization and Global Climate Observing System collect detailed assessments of changes and track how urban life affects changes. Despite their collection of data they still cannot predict the future climate due to the rate of change and the anomalies skewing the data.

__3.2.2 Temperature in the Instrumental Record for Land and Oceans__ In this section there is a graph showing the change in temperature from 1860 to 2000. The description given for the graph mostly focuses on the change from the late 1900’s compared to the drastic increase in temperature from about 1990 to 2005. They have taken the averages of different regions discriminating against anomalies. The National Climatic Data Center (NCDC), the Goddard Institute for Space Studies(GISS), the CRU/Hadley Centre (CRUTEM3) gathered data to calculate the trends in climate. Trends calculated from the NCDC, GISS, and CRUTEM3 are going to be slightly different because their calculations include a lot of the same data but CRUTEM3 has to incorporate anomalies which will slightly skew their data. The general agreement between the differing data sets indicates that, in general, temperatures are increasing. These increases are most evident in the Northern hemisphere, where climate is colder. We see the melting of the ice flows, thus affecting water level and other climate issues like the greenhouse effect. Due to the chemicals, aerosols, carbon dioxide and other gases all contribute to the thinning of our ozone, which is a part of the greenhouse effect. As our ozone thins more solar radiation is let in creating an overall heating of our surface temperature.

__ FAQ 3.1 How are Temperatures on Earth Changing? __ In general, temperatures are increasing. The most drastic of the increase has occurred in the last 25 years. In the colder regions we have seen a decrease in snowfall, melting of glaciers and ice flows and rising of sea level which are all contributions of global warming. The data that shows these trends comes, not from a few readings, but thousands of readings taken by weather balloon, satellite observations amongst other methods. There are certain levels of our atmosphere called the troposphere and the stratosphere that are showing changes due to the thinning to our atmosphere layers and heightened temperatures. The upper layer of atmosphere is the stratosphere and the lower layer is the troposphere, the changes occurring are the stratosphere cooling down while the lower layer is heating up at a higher rate than the surface causing uncertain outcomes. These outcomes consist of river and lakes freezing less during cold seasons, reduction of glacial mass which are the major ice sheets of Greenland starting to melt raising the water levels. Snowfall in the Northern hemisphere has decreased; sea ice has become less thick and hardly freezes in large masses. As glaciers and major ice sheets start melting sea level has risen and the ocean has warmed.

//Author Jessie//

3.3 Changes in Surface Climate: Precipitation, Drought and Surface Hydrology
Situ- Latin for "site" Algorithms- A  set of rules for solving a problem in a finite number of steps, as for finding the greatest common divisor. GHCN- Global Historical Climate Network Decadal- Of or pertaining to a decade GPCC- Global Precipitation Climatology Center Quasi- Continuous-seemingly uninterrupted Homogeneity- Composition  from like parts, elements, or characteristics; state or quality of being homogeneous. Multi-decadal- Multiple decades Amazonia- The region around the Amazon in Northern South America Circumpolar Region- Term used to describe the region around the North and South Poles Climatological- The phenomena of climates or climatic conditions GPCP- Global Precipitation Climatology Project <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">NOAA- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Evapotranspiration- The <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">process of transferring moisture from the earth to the atmosphere by evaporation of water and transpiration from plants. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">PDSI- Palmer Drought Severity Index <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Hydrological- The <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">science dealing with the occurrence, circulation, distribution,and properties of the waters of the earth and its atmosphere.
 * __<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Vocabulary __**


 * __<span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 12pt;">Summary __**

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Several different tests have been taken over land and over the ocean. The averages being taken over land are not as meaningful as those that are taken from out in the ocean because the land has different variations across it. Mountains, plains, deserts, ect. are usually factors that alter the average precipitation count in a certain area. Precipitation had generally increased during the 20th century; however there have been noticable decreases in the average amount of rainfall in the past 40-50 years. There have also been salinity decreases in the ocean which suggest that there has also been precipitation changes in those areas as well. Seasonal decreases in the precipitation over land are the main causes of drying trends. Desert like areas have more than doubled since the 1970's due to ENSO decrease in precipitation over the land.

<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">This chapter deals mainly with the effects dry conditions and overly wet conditions can have on an environment. Those effects are caused by what happens with the water cycle; and the water cycle determines whether an environment is dry or not. If an environment is drier than usual, the chance of it getting more precipitation is less. If an areas precipitation remains the same or above average, runoff and river discharge are generally increased. The other factor that would increase this would be the altitude in which a river is at. Altitude can also increase the soil moisture. With an increased average precipitation, the chances of an area becoming dry are less than that of an area whose average precipitation is below average.
 * __<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Personal Reflection __**

//<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Author Dominique //

3.4 Changes in the Free Atmosphere
§ Water Vapor- H2O in a fog, mist, smoke or steam form that is diffused through or suspended the air. § Clouds- a visible collection of water, ice, natural and unnatural chemicals and gases smoke or dust suspended in the air above the earth’s surface. § Radiation- an energy source that is emitted in particles or waves. § <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt; line-height: 1.5;">Latent heat- potential of warmth.
 * //Vocabulary://**

The changes occurring bring uncertainties and bring long term trends such as new climates for certain hemispheres, changes in the environment and changes in wildlife and the ecosystem. During the early periods of earth, earth went through phases such as the volcanic period, the great rain and the ice age, these were all drastic climate and temperature changes and like those phases our earth seems to be heating up again after a long period of cold and then balanced and predictable temperature and climate period. Our Earth is changing and has always been a planet that has cycles of change.

__3.4.1 Temperature of the Upper Air: Troposphere and Stratosphere__ <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman',serif; font-size: 12pt;">Since the observation of drastic climate and temperature change has started there has been a goal to reduce risk of pushing unnatural changes any further. The main goal is to reduce artificial changes, to work with the environment not against it, the goal is to slow down the process of global warming not speed it up and to develop new ways of helping to contain the matter. Although the study of data and analysis of climate changes are helpful to gain a solution there are still uncertainties about the data sets.

__3.4.2 Water Vapor__ The temperature and climate change in the atmosphere isn't just making environmental problems but is altering natural cycles of life. Earth’s atmosphere keeps heat, cold, chemicals, gases and along with all the other substances that make up the atmosphere and are naturally in the air. But one of the most important and ever cycling cycles is the water cycle. The water cycle is part of basic science, part of a water source on a surface evaporates into the air and is collected together and/or hardened in the clouds which eventually is taken over by gravity because the collection of H2O becomes too heavy and falls back to the earth join water sources above and below the surface and the cycle goes on and on endlessly. In the first stage mentioned, when the particles of a water source is evaporated there needs to be heat in order to turn the water into vapor to collect into a cloud. But if there is too much heat the water completely dries up; like on a hot day in a dry area there is water on a counter and then the water evaporates but does not stay in the air but dries up but in a more humid place where there is an abundance of water sources the water evaporates and stays in the air creating the humidity. The problem with the increased temperature is that when the water turns to vapor it won’t continue the water cycle but will dry up then causing droughts. But water vapor isn't just affecting the water cycle but is one of the key elements in the greenhouse effect and the water particles also are important for creating oxygen. __3.4.3 Clouds__ <span style="font-family: Times New Roman,serif;">Clouds are more important than one would think; clouds regulate the flow of radiation in the atmosphere and on the surface, clouds also regulate the hydro logical cycle and keep the balance between radiation and latent heating; the balance between heat that does exist and the potential of heat. Satellites can take measurements of heat, moisture, natural and unnatural gasses from clouds; it depends on the consistency, length, width and “heaviness” of the cloud. __3.4.4 Radiation__ The break down and thinning of our atmosphere layers is due to the artificial gasses and chemicals or an overload on natural gasses such as carbon dioxide. The atmosphere has layers and each layer has its job, some layers such as the upper layers and clouds reflect heat, radiation and rays that would overload and ruin our planet. Other layers such as the lower layers and other clouds keep in the heat and cause the greenhouse effect and let in enough of what the sun is giving off to help our planet keep its life cycle going. Since the breakdown of our atmosphere and its thinning the job of measuring the radiation that comes in because if we are measuring less than what is coming in or more of coming in will either scare us or we’ll be in harm obliviously. The Atomic Bomb gave off a great amount of radiation and seeing what that can and did cause shows us to be careful of what we let into the atmosphere.

//Author Jessie//

__Vocabulary:__
TAR- Third Assessment Report MSLP- Mean sea level pressure DJF- Winter months of December, January and February JJA- Summer months of June, July and August hPa- A measurement of atmospheric pressure based on geopotential height (hPa at sea level is 1013 hPa) Geopotential height- a vertical coordinate refrenced to Earth's mean sea level, an adjustment to elevation Solstitial Seasons- Winter and summer NH- Northern Hemisphere SH- Southern Hemisphere Circumpolar- <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #212121; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 1.5;">Situated around or inhabiting one of the earth's poles. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #212121; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 1.5;">Blocking Event- occur when one of the jet streams pinches off large masses of air form the normal wind flow for an extended period. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; color: #212121; font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: small; line-height: 1.5;">Jet Stream- fast flowing air currents traveling around the Earth in the upper part of the troposphere. Ridge- An elongated area of relatively high atmospheric pressure NAO- Northern Atlantic Oscillation

3.5 Circulation
<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">Changes in the circulation of the atmosphere and ocean are an integral part of climate change. Accordingly, regional variations in climate can be complex and sometimes counter-intuitive. For example, a rise in global mean temperatures does not mean warming everywhere, but can result in cooling in some places, due to circulation changes. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">This section confronts research since the third assessment report (TAR) on atmospheric circulation changes, through analysis of global-scale data sets of mean sea level pressure (MSLP), jet streams and storm tracks. Related quantities at the surface over the ocean, including winds, waves and surface movements, are also considered. Many of the results discussed are based on reanalysis data sets. Reanalyses provide a global image of all available observations, but are subject to false changes over time as observations change, especially in the late 1970s with the improved satellite and aircraft data and observations from drifting buoys over the southern hemisphere.

3.5.1 Surface or Sea Level Pressure
<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13px; line-height: 1.5;">Maps of mean sea level pressure (MSLP) project the atmospheric circulation status. It was noted that MSLP changes in the southern hemisphere beginning in the 1970s while major changes were also taking place over the North Pacific during the 1976–1977 climate change. More recently, analyses of sea level pressure from 1948 to 2005 for December, January and February (DJF) found decreases over the Arctic, Antarctic and North Pacific. While sea level pressure increased over the subtropical North Atlantic, southern Europe and North Africa. The strength of mid-latitude MSLP and associated western circulation appears to have increased in both the northern and southern hemispheres, especially during DJF since the late 1970s. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif;">The increase in MSLP in the northern hemisphere appears to significantly exceed simulated natural and human forced variability. However, the significance of changes over the southern hemisphere is less clear, especially over the oceans before satellite imaging in the late 1970s, as false trends are obvious in both major reanalyses.

3.5.2 Geopotential Height, Winds and the Jet Stream
Geopotential height is a form of measuring atmospheric pressure at certain elevations. The average geopotential height at sea level is 1013 hPa at sea level. Over the NH between 1960 and 2000, winter and annual means of geopotential height at 850, 500 and 200 hPa decreased over high latitudes and increased over the mid-latitudes. In the NH for 1979 to 2001 during the winter months, increases in geopotential height occurred between 30°N and 50°N at many longitudes, notably over the central North Pacific.

3.5.3 Storm Tracks
A number of studies suggest that cyclone activity over both hemispheres has changed over the second half of the 20th century. Usual signs are a shift in a distance storm tracks travel northward or southward. Also included is an increase in storm intensity, but a decrease in the total number of storms. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">In the northern hemisphere, it was found that there has been a significant decrease in mid-latitude cyclone activity and an increase in amounts of cyclones at high altitudes, suggesting a northern shift of the storm track, with storm intensity increasing over the North Pacific and North Atlantic. It has been proven that storm tracks in the North Atlantic have shifted 180 km northward in the months of January through March. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">Based on data, it has been discovered that cyclone activity has increased at mid latitudes in the northern hemisphere. Storm activity has also increased in the Pacific during mid winter. Data from Euro-Atlantic stations has discovered a storm decrease in these areas during the late 1800's which was followed by a minimum amount of cyclone activity in the 1960's to a rapid increase in the 1990's. Changes in storm tracks are expected to be complicated and depend on patterns of change, and in practice, the data present in the observations makes the detection of long-term changes in sub tropical storm activity difficult. There has been a significant decrease in the number of cyclones and increase in the average cyclone radius and depth over the southern hemisphere sub tropics.

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<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt;">Blocking events, along with persistent high-latitude ridging and a displacement of mid-latitude western winds lasting a week or two, are an important component of total circulation change. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 11pt; line-height: 1.5;">In the northern hemisphere, the preferred locations for the blocking are over the Atlantic and the Pacific along with a spring maximum and summer minimum in the Euro-Atlantic area. <span style="background-color: #ffffff; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,Verdana,sans-serif; font-size: 12px; line-height: 1.5;">Observations show that in the Euro-Atlantic sector, long-lasting blockings of 10+ days are clearly associated with the negative Northern Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) phase, whereas the blockings of 5 to 10 day duration exhibit no such relationship, pointing to the dynamical links between the life cycles of NAO and blocking events. Other data did not find any long-term statistically significant trends in northern hemisphere blocking strength. However, in the Pacific sector, Barriopedro et al. (2006) found a significant increase from 1948 to 2002 in western Pacific blocking days and events (57 and 62%, respectively). =====

**3.5.5 The Stratosphere** Stratospheric circulation is essential for transporting ozone form the tropics using the Brewer Dobson circulation. Without strong stratospheric circulation, this ozone cannot be transported to higher latitudes which results in ozone holes. In September of 2002 a major warming occurred and was observed in the SH. Some analyses show a downward trend in the NH wave forcing in the period 1979 to 2000, particularly in January and February.

3.5.7 Summary
Changes from the late 1970's to now have revealed decreases in troposphertic geo-potential height over high latitudes of the hemispheres but an increase over mid latitudes in the winter months. Data has also shown a northward trend of stormtrack in the winter months of the northern hemisphere in the later half of the 20th century. There is still uncertainty in the cyclone numbers at sub tropic and tropic regions but an increase in average cyclone radius.

There has been a decrease in blocking frequency over the North Atlantic and Euro regions over recent decades. After the late 1990’s in the northern hemisphere, the polar stratosphere temperature has increased. These atmospheric changes are resulting in many other environmental changes.

//Author Benny//

3.6 Patterns of Atmospheric Circulation Variability
__**Vocabulary:**__ __** Summary: **__ In the last few decades, variations in teleconnections considerably complicate the understanding of climate change. Since the TAR, it has become clear that a small number of teleconnection patterns account for much of the seasonal to interannual variability in the extratropics. On time scales monthly, the SAM, NAM and NAO are all dominant in the extratropics. The NAM and NAO are closely related, and are mostly independent from the SAM, except perhaps on decadal time scales. Many other patterns can be explained through combinations of the NAM and PNA in the NH, and the SAM and PSA in the SH, plus ENSO-related global patterns. Both the NAM/NAO and the SAM have displayed trends towards their positive phase over the last three to four decades, although both have returned to near their long-term state in the last five years. In the NH, this trend has been associated with the observed winter change in storm tracks, precipitation and temperature patterns. In the SH, SAM changes are related to contrasting trends of strong warming in the Antarctic Peninsula and a cooling over most of inner Antarctica. The increasing positive phase of the SAM has been linked to stratospheric ozone depletion and to greenhouse gas increases. Multi-decadal variability is also evident in the Atlantic, and appears to be related to the THC. Other teleconnection patterns show decadal variations, but have not been shown to have long-term changes.
 * Indices- An arrangement of material in numerical or alphabetical order.
 * Teleconnections- the strength of the storm tracks and poleward fluxes of heat, moistureand momentum.
 * Poleward- Facing or moving toward the North or South pole.
 * Souther Oscillation- Changes in trade wind, tropical arculation and precipitation.
 * El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)- A coupled ocean that exchanges large amounts of heat between the ocean and atmosphere.
 * Aleutian Low- A semi-permanent low pressure center located near the Aleutian Islands during the winter. It is one of the main centers of action in theatmospheric circulation of the Northern Hemisphere.
 * Antarctic Circumpolar (ACW)- It is chracterized by the eastward propagation of anomalies in arctic sea ice extent.
 * Propagation- Spreading or diffusion.
 * Sumatra- A large island in the west part of Indonesia.
 * Somalia- an independent republic on the east coast of Africa, formed from the former British Somaliland.
 * Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD)- A pattern that manifests through a zonal gradient of tropical SST (Supersonic transport), in one extreme phase in boreal autumn show cooling off Sumatra and warming off Somalia in the west, combined with anomalus easterlies along the equator.
 * Anamlous- Not fitting into a common or familiar type, classification, or pattern.
 * Southern Annual Mode (SAM)- The amplitude of the leading observation orthogonal function of monthly mean SH 850 hPa height poleward of 20°S.
 * Northern Annual Mode (NAM)- The amplitude of the pattern defined by the leading observation orthogonal function of winter monthly mean NH MSLP anomalies poleward of 20°N.
 * North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO)- The dominant mode of winter climate variablilty in the North Atlantic region ranging from central North America to Europe and much into Northern Asia. It's a large scale seesaw in atmospheric mass between the subtropical high and the polar low. ([])
 * MSLP- Main sea level pressure


 * __Reflection:__**

As the equator starts to move polewards, it seems that the temperature is rising.The constant rotation of earth on its axis will cause the temperature to rise will cause uneven heating of earth's surface that can cause drought of certain bodies of water in certain places and in a place where it would be very cold, it would end up being fairly hot. It will also affect the amount of solar radiation that earth is receiving at a certain time as well. Changes in global air temperatures over land and the ocean, <span class="goog_qs-tidbit goog_qs-tidbit-3">as well as increased temperature variation, will change atmospheric pressure gradients that drive the strength of winds over the ocean. Stronger winds create a rapid, intense upwelling that provides a large influx of nutrients in a short amount of time.This influx of such can increase the frequency and distribution of low oxygen zones. Increased variability of winds due to the changing global climate is also expected to cause stronger and longer ENSO events, which are periods of time when the waters in the tropical Pacific are warmer or cooler than usual, causing weather and climate issues throughout the globe. Also, making it very intolerable for sea creatures in the oceans. ([])

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__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Vocabulary __
<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Monsoon- The <span style="color: #333333; font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">seasonal wind of the Indian Ocean and southern Asia,blowing from the southwest in summer and from the northeast in winter. <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">MSLP- Mean Sea Level Pressure <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Anomalously- Deviating from or inconsistent with the common order, form, or rule; irregular; abnormal <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">NAMS- North American Monsoon System <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">SAMS- South American Monsoon System <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">TAR- Third Assessment Report <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Variability- Being able to be altered <span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Dipole- Opposite pole of equal magnitude and opposite signs, separated by an exceedingly small distance


 * __<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3.7.1 Asia- __**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> The Asian Monsoon can be divided into the East Asian monsoon and the Southeast Asian/ Indian Monsoon. Evidence of long term change in the East Asian monsoon suggest that there has been a shift southward of the summer "rainbelt". Data dating back to records from the 1850's, but not recorded then, suggests that there is a weakening trend in the system. However, other evidence says that the Asian monsoon occurred during the 1976-1977 climate shift. The average rainfall in the Southeast Asian/ Indian monsoon counts for nearly 70% of the annual rainfall in that area. all links between monsoon related events, rainfall, weakened from 1890- 1930; but became stronger between 1930-1970.
 * __<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3.7.2 Australia- __**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> The Australian Monsoon covers most of the northern third of the country and the seas surrounding it. The monsoon exhibits large interannual differences due to the ENSO and tropical cyclone activity. It has been argued that the upward trend in rainfall is related to the upward trend in the temperature on the land. The strong relationship does not extend throughout the whole monsoon and there is a weak, negative correlation that relates to the IPO.
 * __<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3.7.3 The Americas- __**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">The NAMS is mostly characterized by the land contrasts, which includes the temperature differences throughout Mexico and Southern U.S. states. The start of the monsoon begins in June in Mexico and works its way to a strong storm in the U.S. in July and August, eventually dying down in September. The SAMS is spaced over most of South America. The transfer of moister is mainly dependent on wind speeds and where the wind takes the monsoon.
 * __<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">3.7.4 Africa- __**<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> Warming of weather in Africa is associated with an earlier rainy season over the northern part of Africa and a later rainy season in over the southern part of Africa. West Africa is marked to experience multi-decadal differences in the average rainfall. There have been reports of Africa experiencing significant weakening of monsoon circulation. These are results of shorter monsoon periods.

__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Summary __
<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Variability at different times is the biggest factor that greatly affects monsoon systems. There has been good evidence for changes over several decades across all of the monsoon systems. Most of this evidence points back to the 1976-1977 climate shift. The climate shift in 1977 was a time when El Nino lasted twice as long. The great amounts of rain that were pouring down, especially in the rainforests and Southeast Asia, was causing there to be too much additional carbon dioxide in the air. This was caused by the rotting and burning of trees which caused several heat waves and weather changes that could be felt world wide.

__<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 13pt;">Personal Reflection __
<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;"> This chapter was a look into how weather systems can change abbruptly and how the environment in which a monsoon is at can change if that weather system were to change all of a sudden. These changes can be triggered by sudden wind storms that can alter the path in which a monsoon travels which can lead to that monsoon traveling off coarse. Another factor that could cause a change would be other storms colliding with the monsoon system and creating a potentially bigger storm that could have the same affect as the climate shift of 1976-1977 did. There are many different factors that can be considered when it comes to climate shift





//<span style="font-family: Arial,sans-serif; font-size: 10pt;">Author Dominique //

3.8 Changes in Extreme Events
3.8.1 Background 3.8.2 Evidence for Changes in Variability or Extremes 3.8.3 Evidence for Changes in Tropical Storms FAQ 3.3 Has there been a Change in Extreme Events like Heat Waves, Droughts, Floods and Hurricanes? 3.8.4 Evidence for Changes in Extratropical Storms and Extreme Events 3.8.5 Summary

//Author Benny//

3.9 Synthesis: Consistency Across Observations
__**Vocabulary:**__ In the last half century, the temperature has increased all over the globe, causing glaciers in the Arctic melt and well as reducing them. As the temperatures increase, not only does the world get hotter during the spring and the summer, but it decreases the thickness of sea ice. This could also be the destruction of many animals’ habitats in the arctic. With the continuing melting ice, it will also cause the sea level to rise all over the world, especially by islands or countries surrounded by bodies of water. It may mean that we may get more water, but with more water and less precipitation, there will be more droughts; which would also cause changes in the SST. In the last four decades there have been changes in the fresh water balance of the Atlantic Ocean because of the melting of many of the mass reduction of glaciers. __**Reflection:**__ With the continuous melting ice, it could mean changes all over the globe. Especially for islands that are surrounded by large bodies of water, it is possible for the land to be overtaken by the rising water and under the sea. It will also mean the end of many of the Arctic animals’ habitats, as well as their own species. If the temperature continues to increase, it is a possibility that we will soon not have any glaciers left and as the temperature rises with no precipitation, the water will drought faster than the ice melted and became water. It is quite possible that in the distant future that soon the earth will hardly have any fresh water supply, and very rare to find.
 * Cryoshphere- The frozen water part of the Earth system.
 * Evapotranspiration- The combined processes of evaporation, sublimation, and transpiration ofthe water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere.
 * Ocean Basins- The combined processes of evaporation, sublimation, and transpiration ofthe water from the earth's surface into the atmosphere. ([])
 * Permaforst- Underlies about 20 percent of the land in the Northern Hemisphere and is widespread within the Arctic Ocean’s vast continental shelves and in parts of Antarctica. Most of the world’s permafrost has been frozen for millennia and can be up to 5,000 feet thick. ([])
 * __Summary:__**

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