C+block+Chapter+5+Oceanic+Climate+Change+and+Sea+Level

= Chapter 5: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level =

= 5.1 Introduction =

The world ocean plays a very important role in the global climate and climate change. The ocean makes up almost seventy percent of the earths surface, so the effects of rising sea levels may be drastic. Today the Earth is warming and most of this temperature increase is being absorbed by the ocean (Figure 1). Because the ocean is absorbing this heat, sea levels are rising. When water increases in temperature it increases in volume, this is called thermal expansion. The sea levels are also rising because melting glaciers and ice sheets are adding more water to the oceans. Ocean levels have always varied depending on the earths temperature, but the sea level has been on the steady rise since the 1880's (Figure 2).

Very soon rising sea levels may have a drastic effect on humans. Many of the major cities around the world are located on shorelines, these will be the first effected by the sea levels. In recent years rising sea levels have become one of the biggest and most widely talked about side effects of global climate change. The public views rising sea levels as the next biggest ecological crisis ( http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JmO0Bh2ABBs).



Personal Reflection: The issues of global climate are already apparent, but the public is doing little about them. Unfortunately, this culture does not address problems until they effect us immediately and directly. The legislature on helping the environment will not be passed until Washington D. C. is engulfed by the rising sea. Even if we could address the sea rise problem immediately it may already be too late. With carbon dioxide levels at an all time high most areas are reaching all time highs, while some are reaching all time lows because of glacial melting. We as humans must be more responsible for our surroundings, and learning about global sea rise is part of this. The general population does know about global warming but knowing about the specific issues is very important. If we aren't careful, sea levels will rise hundreds of feet, and people will be relocated and harmed from flooding and major tropical storms.



Vocabulary For Chapter: 1.Climate- Region of the earth that has specific conditions; effected by proximity to water, rainfall, elevation, and latitude. 2.Heat Capacity- The amount of heat required to raise the overall temperature of a body (in this case water). 3.Biogeochemical- Deals with chemicals and surrounding life. 4.Salinity- Concentration of Salt (NaCl). 5.Thermal Expansion- Increase in volume due to increase of temperature.

People find ways to express their frustration with the world around them. This is a poem by a student about her frustration with her culture and the way we are handling global warming.

Global Warming isn't hard to explain It leaves Mother Earth crying with excruciating pain.

This hurts our planet in every single way The changes could leave us all in sorrow and dismay.

We need to stop it now so the temperature doesn’t rise People, plants, and animals would be in demise.

Changes in temperature due to the depleting ozone layer We really don’t need it so show us that you care.

Mother Nature can’t do it all so let’s give her a rest. We all need to try and do what is best.

Our planet earth is precious and can’t be replaced We need to act now or our home will be erased.



5.2.1 Background
Looking at the heat content change in the upper 3,000 meters of the ocean can indicate the temperature change of the entire ocean. The following information is based on temperature data gathered by Willis et al., 2004, Levitus et al., 2005b, and Ishii et al., 2006.

5.2.2 Ocean Heat Content
Three experiments were done from 1993-2003. Because they all had similar results, people are confident that these studies are accurate. The three studies give estimates for what they think the trend in global increase in ocean heat content will be. Much of the Indian Ocean has warmed since 1955. The southern portion of the Atlantic and Pacific sectors have also generally warmed. This graph shows the tests done by Willis et al., 2004, Levitus et al., 2005b, and Ishii et al., 2006. **5.2.2.3 Implications for Earth's Heat Balance**

[1] Ocean heat content variability is a critical variable for detecting the effects of the observed increase in greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere and for resolving the Earth's overall energy balance. The following graph shows the energy content change between 1961 and 2003. The lavender bars in the graph represent the change between 1961 and 2003. The burgundy bars represent the change from 1993 to 2003. As shown on the graph, the 10 year period between 1993 and 2003 is equal to more than 50% of the total energy content change from 1961 to 2003.

**5.2.3 Ocean Salinity**

2.3 million profiles were used to test ocean salinity. This is 1/3 the amount of data used in the heat content estimation. Patterns of salinity change can be used to infer changes in the Earth's water cycle. Estimates show that the global ocean is freshening; however, there is very limited data in some parts of the world.

5.2.4 Air-Sea Fluxes and Meridional Transports
There is not enough data to allow a direct assessment of changes in heat flux.

5.2 Personal Reflection
In this section I learned about the tests done based around temperature and salinity. I feel that this section of the chapter helped me to understand the changes in the ocean water. I thought it was really interesting that between 1961 and 2003, more than half of the energy content change was represented in 1993 to 2003. Also, nothing was really proven other than the fact that there is a lot of variability when doing these tests. Although the studies all got fairly similar results, they basically said that the temperature and salinity varies. A lot.

5.3 Regional Changes in Ocean Circulation and Water Masses
The upper ocean has the largest variability and is the best sampled, but there are also important changes in heat and salinity at intermediate and profound depths. There are global changes in salinity with similar patterns in different ocean basins. [2] The subtropical waters have increased in salinity and the subpolar surface and intermediate waters have freshened in both the Atlantic and Pacific during the period from the 1960s to 1990s.

5.3.2 Atlantic & Arctic Oceans
In the Atlantic and Arctic oceans, the fresh waters are continuing to freshen and the salty waters are becoming saltier. That is, the subpolar waters are getting fresher and the subtropic waters are getting saltier. This could be because polar ice caps are melting. The polar ice caps contain 70% of the worlds fresh water supply.

5.3.2.1 North Atlantic Subpolar Gyre, Labrador Sea, and Nordic Seas
North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) is the dominate mode of winter climate change in the North Atlantic region (North America to Europe). Significant changes in salinity have been observed and seem to be associated with ice melt, ocean circulation, and river runoff as well as with the NAO. These anomalies have affected the Labrador Sea Water (LSW). Since the 70s the LSW has had a radical freshening trend from 1988-1994, a great deal of cold, fresh and dense LSW was produced. Since that time, the Labrador Sea returned to a warmer and more saline state. The images below show water circulation.

Figure 5.7. The longest available time series of salinity (psu; upper panel) and potential temperature (°C, lower panel) in the central Labrador Sea from 1949 to 2005 (updated from Yashayaev et al., 2003). The dashed lines are contours of potential density (kg m -3 , difference from 1,000 kg m -3 ) and are the same on both panels.

5.3.2.2 Arctic Ocean
Surface temperature has increased since the 80s and continues to increase. During the 1990s, changed winds cause eastward redirection of river runoff from the Lapter Sea reducing the low-salinity surface layer in the central Arctic Ocean, thus allowing greater convection and heat transport into the surface arctic layer from the saline subsurface Atlantic layer. Increased salinity allowed greater convection and heat transport. There was no trend identified because there was too much variability.

5.3.2.3 Subtropical & Equatorial Atlantic
The North Atlantic is highly correlated with the NAO. Temperatures have increased since the 50s, but after the mid 90s, temperature and salinity decreased, reversing the previous warming trend. [3] Ongoing observations of the lowest bottom temperatures around the coast of Antarctica have revealed a slow, but consistent increase in the abyssal layer over the last 30 years (0.0002 degrees celsius per year). NAO is important to the variations in the North Atlantic subtropical gyre.

5.3.2.4 Mediterranean Sea
The Western Mediterranean Deep Water (WMDW) warmed in the last 50 years. The WMDW warming is consistent with Mediterranean atmospheric temperature changes. The salt content of WMDW has also been steadily increasing since the 1940s. [4] While there are strong natural variations in the Mediterranean, overall there is a discernible trend of increased salinity and warmer temperatures in key water masses over the last 50 years.

5.3.3 Pacific Ocean
The Upper Pacific Ocean has been warming and freshening overall.

5.3.3.2 Intermediate & Deep Circulation & Water Property Changes
North Pacific bottom waters are the furthest from surface sources. They are also the most consistent in temperature and salinity. Between 1985 and 1999, there was a significant warming trend across the North Pacific.The cause of this is uncertain. The chart below shows the change in

Figure 5.8. Temperature trends (°C yr –1 ) at 900 m depth using data collected from the 1930s to 2000, including shipboard profile and Autonomous LAgrangian Current Explorer float data. The largest warming occurs in subantarctic regions, and a slight cooling occurs to the north. From Gille (2002).

5.3.4 Indian Ocean
The upper Indian Ocean warmed significantly between 1970 and 1999. Some areas exceeded .2 degrees celsius per decade. When there is slow circulation, the water warms up. Quick circulation cools water.

5.3.5 Southern Ocean
The Southern Ocean is a connection between the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Ocean.

5.3.5.1 Upper Ocean Property Changes
Upper and Mid-Depth waters of the Southern Ocean have recently warmed. Increases in water temperature are similar to increases in air temperature. Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW) has been freshening since the 1960s.

5.3.5.2 Antarctic Regions & Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Reduced amount of sea ice and atmospheric warming has caused the waters of the West Antarctic Peninsula to warm by mote than 1 degree celsius and become more saline from 1951 to 1994. Conversely, there has been a significant decrease in salinity in the Ross Sea in the last 40 years. It seems that the freshening was caused by increased precipitation and melting of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet.

5.3.6.1 Changes in Global Water Mass Properties
In the ten year periods of measurement, there was great variability. Due to the variability it is difficult to discern whether the oceanic variability is natural or just a climate change signal.

5.3.6.2 Consistency with the Large-Scale Ocean Circulation
Observed changes are consistent with what scientists understand about circulation of oceans. In areas where oceans ventilate deep waters over a short time, show strong evidence of change. For example, the North Atlantic shows evidence of significant warming and freshening. Conversely, remote, deep waters with slow replentishment rates show no significant changes.

5.3 Personal Reflection
This section was mainly about currents and circulation of water masses. What I learned from this section was that the fresh waters are getting fresher and the salty waters are getting saltier. When the data was analyzed, it showed that there was a lot of variability in the changes being observed. In other words, all studies were fairly inconclusive. I learned about how water circulates and why. I also learned that studies like this are really complicated because the ocean is constantly changing.

5.2 and 5.3 Vocabulary
Freshwater - water that is fresh rather than saltwater Salt water - water that is salty rather than freshwater Salinity - salty or salt like Variability - apt or liable to vary or change Subtropical - bordering on the tropics Subpolar - subantarctic; subarctic Labrador Sea Water (LSW) North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) Western Mediterranean Deep Water (WMDW) Antarctic Intermediate Water (AAIW)

=__**5.4 Ocean Biogeochemical Changes**__=

**5.4.1 Introduction**
The Ocean is known to absorb 40% of the carbon dioxide that is released into the atmosphere. This occurs because the changes in temperature and Ocean salinity have an impact on the solubility of gases such as carbon dioxide. The introduction of higher levels of carbon dioxide in the Ocean has a negative effect on certain nutrients in the Ocean, and therefore the life that uses those nutrients. The introduction of CO2 has also made Ocean water more acidic, hurting organisms which are adapted to a more basic environment. The change in climate combined with the higher concentration of carbon dioxide is effecting Ocean water, nutrients, and life. In addition to dissolving CO2, the Ocean also dissolves CFC, which hinders the Ocean's circulation, leading to lowered levels of O2. The same hindered circulation also leads to changes in the concentration of nutrients in the Ocean. One important note, however, is that changes in biological activity in the Ocean may also have a significant impact on Biogeochemical changes.

**5.4.2 Carbon**
The level of inorganic carbon (carbon not produced by aquatic life) in the Ocean has markedly increased. There have been observed changes in the carbon cycle as well as increases in the amount of carbon dioxide dissolved from the atmosphere into our Oceans. A longer and more comprehensive study shows that the level of CO2 in the surface water of the Ocean has increased with the level of CO2 in the atmosphere, though this study has only shown the increase of CO2 in the surface water in the Ocean.

The CO2 bonds with sea water, which forms Carbonic Acid. This is why Ocean water is becoming more acidic. The acid produces Bicarbonate and Hydrogen ions. Bicarbonate can't be used by marine life unlike Carbonate, and the released Hydrogen ions also bond with Carbonate ions that marine animals need, instead forming useless Bicarbonate. The lack of Carbonate ions makes it very difficult for marine animals to form shells and skeletons, as these structures are composed of Calcium Carbonate. Eventually, certain areas of the Ocean will become so acidic that existing Calcium Carbonate will dissolve. At this point, man-made Carbonic Acid is prominent in the upper 400 meters of the Ocean and is undetectable deep in the ocean.

5.4.3 Oxygen
In the thermocline layer of the ocean, the concentration of Oxygen molecules has decreased between the early 1970's and late 1990's. This decrease in the concentration of Oxygen in the Ocean has occurred due to changes in the Ocean's circulation. The Ocean's circulation is changing because of a type of man-made compound, CFC, also known as Freon. CFCs are used for a variety of purposes such as aerosol propellants, refrigerants and solvents. When CFCs are used, they are released into the atmosphere not unlike Carbon Dioxide. Also not unlike Carbon Dioxide, surface Ocean water dissolves the CFCs in the air, and they are carried to the interior of the Ocean, where they hinder the Ocean's circulation. There are Low-Oxygen Zones in the Ocean as a result, and these zones are growing, killing marine animals which aren't getting the Oxygen they need to survive.

Video

5.4.4 Nutrients
Other observations have been made about changes in nutrients in the Ocean. For instance, in the North Pacific, a study has shown a decrease in Nitrate plus Nitrite and Phosphate in surface waters. However, the same study shows an increase in the same chemicals below the surface. Another study indicated a decrease in Nitrogen which seemed to connect to the changing levels of molecular Oxygen between 1970 and 1990. These results directly contradicted results from a longer study about the same subject.

This chart shows concentrations of Nitrate (dN) and molecular Oxygen (O2.)



Sometimes, a change in nutrient content in the Ocean can indicate a change in biological activity in the Ocean. Most often, however, these changes occur because of reduced thermocline ventilation. This connects back to 5.4.3, as this reduction in thermocline ventilation is caused in part by CFCs. Changes in surface nutrient concentrations may also be affected negatively by a decreased surface mixing of nutrients. Such changes in surface mixing can be indicated by changing surface temperature and salinity.

5.4.5 Biological Changes Relevant to Ocean Biogeochemistry
It is important to consider changes in biological activity and their relevance to the carbon cycle, though it's difficult to determine when these changes are taking place. The process which has the greatest impact on changes in elemental cycles is marine export production. Marine export production is the organic material which sinks into the deep Ocean that is formed during primary production.

This image illustrates primary production and marine export production.



Although no studies have been performed about changes in marine export production, estimates have been made. For instance, one estimate of a 6% reduction in oceanic primary production was made based on Chlorophyll data taken from two different satellites. The reason why this estimate is potentially inaccurate is that data from two different sensors had to be compared for the estimate to be made. This could cause variables based on differences in the ways the two sensors operate. One piece of evidence which supports this estimate is the fact that during this period, decreasing O2 indicated a decrease in intermediate water renewal. The reason why the decrease supported this estimate is that the amount biological production is dictated by the nutrient content of intermediate waters.

5.4.6 Consistency With Physical Changes
It's been proven that variation in our climate has an impact on the concentration of natural and anthropogenic DIC in our Ocean, as well as the air-sea flux of CO2. However, the severity of the change caused by climate variability is not as well established. To interpret physical changes associated with climate variability, the marine carbon cycle's variation has been observed. Patterns of dissolution of anthropogenic CO2 parallels patterns of CFC dissolution. These changes are consistent with temperature change.

Charts of regional CFC content in water and CO2 content in the Troposphere for comparison:





The explanation for the trends in DIC, Carbonate species, acidity and CO2 is the Ocean's dissolution of increasing amounts of CO2 from the atmosphere.

The thermocline has seen significant changes in its O2 content between the 1970's and late 1990's, and although the impact of climate change has been proven, it's also possible that changes in marine biology also have a significant influence on these changes. Available data isn't entirely conclusive as far as whether the cause of the changes of O2 content are the results of natural variability, or if they're signs of trends which will continue into the future. However, the data does prove that significant changes in the physical properties of our Ocean impact natural Biogeochemical cycles. So if Ocean circulation continues to change, we can predict that Oxygen and Carbon cycles will likely change as well.

5.4 Vocabulary
Biogeochemistry - The study of chemicals which pertain to life Salinity - Salt Content CFC - Chlorofluorocarbon Thermocline - The water layer in the Ocean between 100m and 1,000m deep Anthropogenic - Pertaining to the impact of human activity on the environment DIC - Dissolved Inorganic Carbon Troposphere - The lowest level of Earth's atmosphere

5.4 Bibliography
"5.4 Ocean Biogeochemical Changes - AR4 WGI Chapter 5: Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level." IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013. .

Bullister, John, David Wisegarver, and Frederick Menzia. "review." Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory. PMEL, n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013. .

"Growing Low-Oxygen Ocean Zones Worry Scientists." YouTube. The Global Report, 12 Mar. 2010. Web. 23 Mar. 2013. .

"MGGD at UH | MGGD Research Areas: Marine geochemistry and global biogeochemical cycles." SOEST | School of Ocean and Earth Science and Technology. University of Hawaii, n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013. .

Sageman, Bradley, Adam Murphy, Josef Werne, Charles Ver Straeten, David Hollander, and Timothy Lyons. "ScienceDirect.com - Chemical Geology - A tale of shales: the relative roles of production, decomposition, and dilution in the accumulation of organic-rich strata, MiddleÃ¢Â€Â“Upper Devonian, Appalachian basin." ScienceDirect.com | Search through over 11 million science, health, medical journal full text articles and books.. Science Direct, 15 Apr. 2003. Web. 24 Mar. 2013. .

"What is Ocean Acidification?." Oceana North America. N.p., n.d. Web. 23 Mar. 2013. .

"flux - definition of flux by the Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and Encyclopedia.." Dictionary, Encyclopedia and Thesaurus - The Free Dictionary. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Mar. 2013. <http://www.thefreedictionary.com/flux>.

**5.5.2 Observations of Seal Level Changes**
Thermal expansion of the ocean, as well as a significant loss of land-based ice (due to increased melting) are only two of the reasons that appear to cause the rising of global sea level.

The following is a graph that portrays annual averages of the global mean sea level. Clearly, sea level has risen significantly since 1880.

5.5.3 Ocean Density Changes
Ocean density contributes to sea level rise. Materials dissolved into the ocean determine the oceans density. This being said, colder water is more dense than warmer water. Therefore, sea level rises when the ocean warms, and falls when the ocean cools. Furthermore, sea level rise, as well as ocean density change varies per region.

The above picture shows that high salinity and low temperature combine to increase seawater density.

The following graph shows sea level change due to thermal expansion (or low density) for 1955 to 2003.



Clearly, this graph further demonstrates the rise in sea level over the years. This rise is due to thermal expansion and more specifically, the heating of the atmosphere.

5.5.5 Ocean Mass Change
Amongst other things, human intervention in the water cycle, as well as human modification to land surfaces contribute to the increased sea level rise. This is otherwise known as ocean mass change.

**5.5.5.1 Ocean Mass Due to Salinity Change**
Salinity (salt content) changes can potentially be caused by sea ice volume which does not have an impact on sea level. Salinity changes can also be influenced by ocean mass changes which do impact global sea level. This being said, salinity changes can be used to determine global sea level change due to fresh water input.

5.6 Synthesis
The heat content of the World Ocean has severely increased since 1955. This causes water expansion (and therefore sea level rise) and throws off the balance of hot and cold ocean climate. This balance is necessary for the proper function of the water cycle itself.

Warming in the North Atlantic ocean is more notable than warming in the Pacific, Indian, and Southern oceans. This difference in warming is likely caused by the North Atlantic's convection and subduction zones, as well as its deep overturning circulation cells (which carry heat and water downwards through the water columns). This data would suggest that there is a higher anthropogenic (originating from human activity) carbon content in this region of the ocean. Additionally, the subduction of the Subantarctic Mode Water (SAMW, a water mass) carries more anthropogenic carbon into the ocean.



This graph maps the anthropogenic intake of the ocean.

Water at high altitudes (poleward of 50 degrees N and 70 degrees S) appears to be fresher in the top 500m. The following graphs show the salinity in the upper 500m in various ocean regions.



The above graphs show trends in the zonally averaged salinity (or psu- a unit in the "Practical Salinity Scale"). Red shading represents values equal to or greater than 0.005 psu per decade and blue shading represents values equal to or less than –0.005 psu per decade.

The following is an additional picture showing global ocean salinity.



Furthermore, in the upper 500m of oceans bordering the tropics, there has recently been a notable increase in salinity.

At high altitudes, there has also been an increase in the melting of sea ice, precipitation, and glacial melt water. Each of these occurrences act to freshen high-altitude surface waters. Also, at mid-altitude, evaporation has increased. The previous statements and the patterns of salinity change lead to the theory that there has been an intensification in the earth's hydrological cycle (the movement of earth's water in relation to land) over the last 50 years. In conclusion, thermal heating (water expansion), salinity changes, mass changes, and density changes have all lead to the increase in sea level rise.

[|A video demonstrating sea level rise and its potential effects.]

5.2 and 5.3 Assesment of Validity
All of the tests that took place between 1961 and 2003 had very similar results; however, they were all fairly inconclusive. I believe them to be valid because multiple tests were done with the same results. It is difficult to test things like salinity and temperature change, not only because the ocean is constantly changing, but also because the ocean is so big. It is huge and it is impossible to test every inch of the ocean. Because of this, there is a ton of variability. Although some people may say that because of the amount of variability that these tests are inaccurate and unreliable, I think they are reliable.

5.5 Personal Reflection
Learning about sea level rise, as well as what causes it was very beneficial to my understanding of the effects of global warming. I was personally aware that sea level was rising, but never received information on what specifically caused it. For example, I was unaware that colder water was more dense than warmer water. Furthermore, I did not know that warmer water expands- thus causing a rise in sea level. The warming of our oceans is caused by the warming of our atmosphere (in other words, global warming). The balance of hot and cold ocean climates is necessary for the maintenance of our water cycle. A lack of this balance creates flaws in the cycle that could potentially have severe impacts on the world itself. Because of this, the entirety of the above information relates directly to the water cycle unit we studied in class. I realize that the majority of the population has at least some vague idea of the concept of global warming, although I do believe that only a small portion of the population clearly understands the reasoning behind climate change, and its effects on our world. This being said, such concepts have huge importance on our daily life and should be understood by a much larger number of individuals.

__5.5 Vocabulary__

 * Land-based ice: Locations such as Greenland, Antarctic ice sheets, glaciers and snow fields.
 * Global mean sea level: Average global sea level
 * Convection Zones: Heat transfer in gas or liquid in the circulation of currents from one region to another.
 * Subduction Zones: A convergent plate boundary.
 * Overturning Circulation Cells: The carrying of heat and water downwards through water columns.
 * Anthropogenic: Originating from human activity.
 * Salinity: Salt content.
 * PSU: A unit in the "Practical Salinity Scale."
 * Hydrological Cycle: The movement of earth's water in relation to land.

5.5 Bibliography
"Chapter 5: Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level - AR4 WGI." //IPCC - Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change//. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Feb. 2013. <http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch5.html>.

"Sea Level Rise - World - YouTube."//YouTube//. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Feb. 2013. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N-m14be9vVk>.

"Climate Change Indicators in the United States" 27 Feb. 2013 <http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/science/indicators/oceans/sea-level.html>

"<span style="font-family: arial,sans-serif; font-size: 0.9em; line-height: 1.5;">CLIMATE CHANGE & RISING SEA LEVELS: Adaptation & Resilience" YouTube 27 Feb. 2013 < http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JmO0Bh2ABBs>

"Rising Sea Level" 27 Feb 2013 <http://epa.gov/climatestudents/impacts/signs/sea-level.html>

"Ten Charts That Make It Clear The Earth is Getting Warmer" Joe Romm 27 Feb. 2013 <http://thinkprogress.org/climate/2012/10/15/1014151/ten-charts-that-make-clear-the-planet-just-keeps-warming/?mobile=nc>

"Sharks Look Forward to Global Warming" 27 Feb. 2013 <http://www.funnyandjokes.com/sharks-looking-foward-to-global-warming.html>

"Erylynn's Poem" 27 Feb. 2013 <http://www.childrenoftheearth.org/Kid's%20Entries/global_warming_Dore_class.htm>

Footnotes: [1] [|http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch5s5-2-2-3.html] [2] [|http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch5s5-3.html] [3] [|http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg1/en/ch5s5-3-2-2.html] [4] []